The First Battle of Lincoln (February 2, 1141)
The First Battle of Lincoln, fought on February 2, 1141, was a critical event during the period of civil conflict known as The Anarchy (1135–1153). The conflict stemmed from a succession crisis after the death of King Henry I in 1135. Henry’s only legitimate male heir, his son William Adelin, had perished in the White Ship disaster in 1120. Henry’s daughter, Matilda, was named his heir, but after his death, Stephen of Blois, Henry’s nephew, seized the throne with support from many powerful nobles and the Church. This ignited a civil war as Matilda and her supporters fought to reclaim her right to the crown.
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The battle was significant because it led to the temporary capture of King Stephen and marked a major turning point in the civil war, although its ultimate outcome did not bring a lasting resolution to the conflict.
Background to the Conflict: The Anarchy
To understand the First Battle of Lincoln, it is important to grasp the context of The Anarchy. When Henry I died in 1135, he had planned for his daughter, Matilda, to succeed him. However, her cousin, Stephen of Blois, took advantage of her absence in Normandy and quickly seized the throne with the support of key nobles and the Church, leading to a dynastic war over the English crown.
The war was characterized by shifting allegiances among the English nobility, widespread lawlessness, and destruction as the supporters of both Stephen and Matilda vied for control. Major factions in England were divided between those who supported Stephen’s claim to the throne and those who backed Matilda, who had the advantage of royal blood but faced significant obstacles due to her gender and the political structure of 12th-century England.
Lincoln, a strategically significant city in eastern England, became a focal point of the struggle. The Earl of Chester, Ranulf de Gernon, initially supported Stephen but eventually switched sides after a falling-out with the king. Ranulf’s control over Lincoln and its castle was critical to both parties, as it provided a base of operations in the region.
In January 1141, tensions between King Stephen and Ranulf boiled over when Stephen sought to assert control over Lincoln Castle, leading Ranulf to declare open rebellion. Ranulf called on his powerful ally, Robert of Gloucester, who was Matilda’s half-brother and chief military commander, to intervene. This set the stage for the battle that would unfold in February 1141.
The Build-Up to the Battle
Lincoln Castle was one of the strongest fortifications in the region, and it was held by William de Roumare, Ranulf’s half-brother. In late 1140, King Stephen had seized the castle during a moment of vulnerability for Ranulf, when the Earl was not present. However, Ranulf returned quickly and retook the castle in a daring nighttime assault. Angered by this act of rebellion, Stephen marched north in January 1141 to bring the rebellious Earl of Chester to heel and lay siege to the castle.
Realizing that he could not hold Lincoln Castle against the king’s forces on his own, Ranulf fled to seek aid from his ally, Robert of Gloucester. Together, they amassed a large army of supporters of Empress Matilda. Their combined forces consisted of knights, mercenaries, and infantry from both Chester and Gloucester’s lands. Determined to confront Stephen directly and force a decisive battle, they moved quickly to relieve the siege.
Composition of Forces
The two armies that met at Lincoln were markedly different in composition and leadership:
- Royalist Forces (supporting King Stephen): Stephen commanded a formidable army composed mainly of knights and men-at-arms from his loyal barons, including William of Ypres, his commander of Flemish mercenaries, and several prominent English nobles. Stephen’s forces also included local militia from the surrounding areas, but they were not as well-trained or equipped as his professional soldiers. Stephen’s army may have numbered between 1,500 and 2,500 men, with a significant number of mounted knights and infantry. He positioned his forces to defend the city and prepared for an open battle outside the walls.
- Angevin Forces (supporting Matilda and led by Robert of Gloucester and Ranulf): The rebel army was led by Robert of Gloucester, one of the most experienced and capable commanders of the period. His forces were supplemented by the forces of Ranulf of Chester, who brought with him a contingent of northern barons and Welsh mercenaries. The Angevin forces numbered around 1,000 to 1,500 men, including a significant proportion of cavalry and infantry. Gloucester’s men were highly motivated, as they were fighting for Matilda’s claim to the throne, and their leadership was unified under the experienced Robert.
Course of the Battle
On the morning of February 2, 1141, Robert of Gloucester’s forces arrived outside the city of Lincoln. King Stephen, unwilling to retreat, drew up his army in the plains near the castle. The two forces clashed near the River Witham, a marshy, flat area that made maneuvering difficult for the heavily armored knights.
The battle began with the typical medieval exchange of arrows and crossbow bolts, followed by a cavalry charge. Robert of Gloucester led his forces in a three-pronged attack:
- The first line, commanded by Ranulf of Chester, struck against Stephen’s cavalry, leading to intense fighting. Ranulf’s forces were determined to break through and relieve the castle garrison.
- The second line, under Robert of Gloucester himself, was tasked with engaging Stephen’s main force. Robert was a seasoned commander, and his forces pressed hard on the king’s troops.
- The third line, consisting of infantry and archers, provided support and harassed Stephen’s troops from a distance.
Stephen’s Last Stand
Stephen’s army initially held firm, but the tide began to turn as Robert’s disciplined troops gradually overwhelmed the king’s forces. The battlefield devolved into chaos, with hand-to-hand combat and melees spreading across the open ground. Stephen, refusing to flee, fought valiantly at the center of the battle. According to chroniclers, he wielded a battle axe after his sword shattered, continuing to fight even as his army began to collapse around him.
As his forces crumbled under the pressure of Gloucester’s assault, Stephen was finally surrounded. His elite guard was cut down, and the king was captured after a fierce struggle. Despite the king’s personal bravery, the battle had been decisively lost by this point.
Aftermath of the Battle
Immediately after the battle the city was sacked as it was felt that the locals had been too sympathetic to the royalist cause.
The capture of Stephen was a momentous event in the civil war. With the king in Angevin hands, Empress Matilda’s supporters gained a significant advantage. Stephen was imprisoned at Bristol Castle, one of the Angevin strongholds, where he remained for several months. The Angevin victory at Lincoln and the capture of Stephen led to Matilda being declared “Lady of the English”, and her forces quickly moved to take control of key royalist strongholds.
Significance of the Battle
The First Battle of Lincoln had several key consequences for the course of The Anarchy and the wider political situation in England:
1. A Turning Point in the Civil War
The capture of King Stephen was a decisive moment in The Anarchy. For a brief period, it appeared that Empress Matilda was on the verge of achieving her goal of claiming the English throne. Her forces controlled large parts of the country, and with Stephen imprisoned, the royalist cause seemed in disarray. Matilda was invited to London, and preparations began for her coronation.
2. The Temporary Ascendancy of Matilda
Following the battle, Matilda’s supporters gained control of Winchester, the seat of royal power, and moved into London, where they hoped to crown her queen. However, Matilda’s seeming harsh and imperious behaviour alienated many potential allies, including key Londoners and church officials. Although the battle gave Matilda a major military victory, she ultimately failed to consolidate her power and was forced to retreat from London later that year.
3. Stephen’s Imprisonment and Exchange
The capture of Stephen led to a period of negotiation and political intrigue. Empress Matilda’s victory was undermined when her forces, led by Robert of Gloucester, were themselves defeated at the Rout of Winchester in September 1141. Robert of Gloucester was captured during the retreat from Winchester, leading to an exchange of prisoners between Matilda’s forces and Stephen’s loyalists.
Stephen was released in exchange for Robert of Gloucester, and the civil war resumed with no clear victor in sight.
4. The Continued Stalemate
Despite the significance of the First Battle of Lincoln, the conflict between Stephen and Matilda did not end. The Anarchy continued for several more years, as neither side was able to gain a decisive advantage. The ongoing nature of the war had devastating effects on the kingdom, with widespread lawlessness, devastation of lands, and the weakening of central authority.
5. The Enduring Legacy of the Battle
The battle highlighted the fragility of royal authority during The Anarchy. While Stephen regained the throne after his release, his authority was significantly weakened. The battle also demonstrated the importance of military leadership in medieval warfare – Robert of Gloucester’s tactical skills played a crucial role in the Angevin victory, just as Stephen’s personal bravery prolonged the fight despite his eventual defeat.
The First Battle of Lincoln also illustrated the limitations of Matilda’s leadership. Despite the battlefield success, her failure to secure long-term political alliances and her inability to manage the complex politics of England ultimately hindered her ability to capitalize on her military victories.
Conclusion
The First Battle of Lincoln was a critical event in the civil war between Stephen and Matilda, marking a major victory for Matilda’s forces and leading to the temporary capture of King Stephen. However, its significance was ultimately limited by Matilda’s inability to consolidate her position, and the civil war continued for several more years. The battle is remembered as a turning point in The Anarchy, symbolizing both the volatility of medieval power struggles and the limitations of military victories without political support. In the end, neither Stephen nor Matilda emerged victorious, and it was Matilda’s son, Henry II, who would finally restore order to England after ascending the throne in 1154, bringing an end to The Anarchy.
© James Rye 2024
See also: Saving the King: the Second Battle of Lincoln
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Sources
- Bradbury, J. (1996) Stephen and Matilda: The Civil War of 1139-53, Sutton Publishing
- Carpenter, D. (2003) The Struggle for Mastery: Britain 1066–1284, Penguin Books
- Crouch, D. (2000) The Reign of King Stephen, 1135–1154, Longman
- Davis, R. H. C. (1977) King Stephen 1135-1154, Longman
- Gillingham, J. (2001) The Angevin Empire, Arnold
- King, E. (2010) King Stephen, Yale University Press
- Marritt, S. (2007) “The First Battle of Lincoln, 1141.” History Today, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 24-30
- Stringer, K. J. (1993) The Anarchy of King Stephen’s Reign, Oxford University Press